Education Essays – Citizenship Education School

How Citizenship instruction is educated and implemented within Scots schools.1. Abstract This undertaking aims to look into how Citizenship instruction is presented and implemented within Scots schools. Scotland differs from the remainder of the United Kingdom in that citizenship as a topic has non been officially introduced, instead it is seen as being ‘active’ and should be taught in all topics across the school course of study, therefore impacting both inside and outside the school. The information presented I this undertaking was gathered during the six hebdomads of my 2nd arrangement in 2008 in a non-denominational province school in East Lothian and was carried out in the signifier of staff interviews and a pupil’s focal point group. During the staff interviews, their positions on the different elements of larning within Citizenship instruction ; knowledge & A ; apprehension, skills & A ; aptitudes and values, were discussed. A pupil’s focal point group was set up and the group discussed ; citizenship in the school: societal & amp ; moral issues, rights & A ; duties, the school & A ; wider community, political relations & A ; democracy and the environment. The consequences show that, the school are actively advancing the elements of citizenship in most countries of its subject’s course of study. Through such capable categories as societal instruction, chemical science and music, the school is supplying students with the cognition, consciousness and accomplishments to confront the usual ‘citizenship issues’ that occurred within it and the wider community. However, if the students are traveling to be led into become active citizens, more attempt demands to be made to do them cognizant of precisely what citizenship is and more significantly, why it is being taught to them. 2. Drumhead In September 2002 citizenship instruction was introduced through a Citizenship order to the National Curriculum in England. The order emphasised that â€Å"learning should guarantee that cognition and understanding about being informed citizens are required and applied when developing accomplishments of question and communicating, and engagement and responsible action.† ( Arthur and Wright, 2001:11 ) Rather than present citizenship instruction as a defined topic into its National Curriculum, Scotland has opted to do its results, cognition and apprehension ; accomplishments and competencies ; values and temperaments ; and creativeness and endeavor, an built-in portion of each topic taught. Thus citizenship accomplishments are integrated across the whole school. In the Scottish Executive’s 2004 paper, A Curriculum for Excellence – the Curriculum Review Group, schools and instructors are asked to bring forth a course of study that will cook the young person of today for maturity, which will â€Å"be less crowded† and will †offer more pick and enjoyment.† â€Å"Our aspiration is to enable all kids to develop their capacities as successful scholars, confident persons, responsible citizens and effectual subscribers to society† . ( Scots Executive, 2004:6 ) . The intent of this undertaking is to look into the execution of citizenship instruction in Scots schools at this minute. For this probe I used qualitative research ; this involved questioning members of staff at all degrees and interceding a pupil’s focal point group, The consequence of my undertaking implies that, whilst the consecutive authoritiess and educational constitutions gain the importance of citizenship instruction in givingâ€Å"pupils the cognition, accomplishments and understanding to play an effectual function in society atlocal, national and international degrees† , ( QCA, 1999 cited by Kerr, 2006: p5 ) most of the students who took portion in the focal point group had no cognition of the term citizenship or the constructs behind it and because of that they failed to recognize its elements within the schools course of study. The students besides showed that their cognition of political relations or democracy was unhappily missing. However when the assorted countries of citizenship were discussed with the students, they realised that they did recognize them and were actively involved in utilizing them. This suggests that, although the term citizenship has little or no conceptual significance to the students, they are deriving practical experience of it through topics in the schools course of study every bit good as through the school as a whole. 3. Statement of intents or aims In its paper; A Curriculum for Excellence – The Curriculum Review Group, the Scottish Executive provinces: â€Å"Our aspiration for all kids and for every immature individual is that they should besuccessful scholars,confident persons,responsible citizensandeffectual subscriberstosociety and at work. By supplying construction, support and way to immature people’s acquisition,the course of study should enable them to develop these four capacities. The course of study should complement the of import parts of households and communities† . ( 2004:12 ) Through the Curriculum for Excellence, the Scottish Executive suggests four capacities of instruction that will be the footing of Scots instruction. These are: Successful scholars, confident persons, responsible citizens and effectual subscribers. Since it is the duty of the whole school to develop the four capacities in all their students, the thrust toward constructing responsible citizens should non come on in isolation instead is should be presented across the whole course of study. â€Å"Activities such as endeavor, citizenship, sustainable development, wellness and creativeness, which are frequently seen as additions, can be built into the course of study framework† .( Scots Executive, 2006:8 ) . Because of these alterations instructors will necessitate to believe about the course of study and how they present it in a different manner. Reflection will be indispensable for their personal development. Teachers will no longer be able to be insular in their ain topic, for every bit good as retrieving to implement the four capacities in their ain topic, they must besides be cognizant of showing them across the school as a whole. Since the Curriculum for Excellence has still to be introduced, the chief intent of this undertaking is to look into how citizenship being presented and implemented in Scots schools at this minute. In order to turn to this inquiry, it was indispensable for me to besides look into the undermentioned sub inquiries:How the school presented citizenship?Did all topics in the schools curriculum do a part to citizenship?Were its students aware of the term â€Å"citizenship† and did they understand the construct behind it?Was citizenship promoted across the school as a whole?In making this undertaking the writer hopes that it will help him in the execution of citizenship instruction in his ain capable therefore bettering his ain instruction pattern. 4. Literature Reappraisal The inquiry of â€Å"what is citizenship? † is really hard to specify ; David Kerr argues that it â€Å" †¦is a contested construct. At the bosom of the competition are differing positions about the map and administration of society.†( Kerr, 2006:6 ) . Kerr’s definition of citizenship instruction is toâ€Å" †¦ encompass the readying of immature people for their functions and duties as citizens.†( Kerr, 2006:7 ) . Audrey Osler and Hugh Starkey province thatâ€Å"Citizenship is a site of political struggle.†( Osler and Starkey, 2005:11 ) . They go on to specify it as â€Å"holding two indispensable facets, foremost a position and a set of responsibilities and secondly a practise and an entitlement to rights†( Osler and Starkey, 2006:6 ) . Olser and Starkey besides argue thatâ€Å" †¦ citizenship is likely instantly experienced as a feeling of belonging.†( Osler and Starkey, 2006:6 ) . An account in a Scots Executive paper offers the account thatâ€Å"Everyone belongs to assorted types of community, both communities of topographic point, from local to planetary, and communities of involvement, rooted in a common concern or purpose.†( Scots Executive 2000:8 ) Concluding thatâ€Å"Citizenship involves basking rights and exerting duties in these assorted types of communities†( Scots Executive 2000:8 ) . Harmonizing to the Citizenship Foundation,â€Å"It[ citizenship ]refers non merely to rights and duties laid down in the jurisprudence, but besides to general signifiers of behavior – societal and moral – which societies expect of their citizens.†( The Citizenship Foundation 2006:2 ) . These different definitions do look to place a common subject of citizenship, viz. that, in order to be a viewed as a full member of their community, people need to actively exert their rights and duties in three countries ; civil, societal and political. ( Marshall, 1964 cited by Kennedy, 1997:67 ) . Historically the roots of citizenship can be found in Sparta, antediluvian Greece where â€Å"civilian responsibility scrupulously performed was besides expected of the good citizen. This would affect virtuous obeisance to the Torahs and engagement in the Assembly†( Heater, 2004:11 ) . This earliest signifier of citizenship, which was besides a characteristic of ancient Rome, may befar removed from the construct of it as we understand it today but it did signal a definite motion off from the old bossy signifier of regulating. Throughout the ages citizenship continued to develop and hold found look in many diverse societies and civilizations as far apart as post-revolutionary France and post-independence USA – where it was enshrined in the fundamental law and served as the accelerator for social alteration – to the European Union of today where the proposed individual fundamental law is to a great extent predicated on the thought of a ‘European citizen’ as a mechanism to startle the assorted disparate civilizations. Before Citizenship was debut into the course of study in England in 2002 as a discreet topic, it had been antecedently recommended for inclusion twice earlier. Both times saw Britain in crises of war. In 1918, at the terminal of World War 1, thePrimer of English Citizenshipwas published by Frederick Swannâ€Å" †¦ to back the moral character of the British Citizen.†( Brandom, 2007:269 ) . The Association for Education in World Citizenship, ( AEWC ) , was setup in 1935 to,â€Å"preserve the democratic cloth of society in response to the rise of totalitarianism† .( Brandom, 2007:269 ) . Despite the AEWC’s construct of citizenship being adhered to in schools in the post-war old ages, there was no official add-on of citizenship as a topic into the course of study. Harmonizing to Anne-Marie Brandom, citizenship was given â€Å"some signifier legislative recognition†( 2007:270 ) in the 1988Education Reform Actbut the course of study time-table was so overcrowded that it failed to be implemented. Recommendations were besides made in a 1990 study,Encouraging Citizenship, as to ways of â€Å"easing societal citizenship through schools, voluntary attempts and public services† ( Arthur and Wright, 2001:7 ) but once more there was thin application of it. In the latter portion of the 1990’s politicians were concerned with the gradual diminution of British civilization and society. This impairment was peculiarly prevailing amongst the states young person and because of it, there was a noticeable addition in anti-social behavior, hooky and high school exclusions. To counter this, an consultative group chaired by Professor Bernard Crick was formed toâ€Å"establish the purposes and maps of citizenship ion schools†. ( Brandom, 2007:271 ) The Crick study, ( as it became know ) , categorised citizenship in three lines: â€Å"understanding societal and moral duty ; going involved in the community ; developing political literacy† .( Brandom, 2007:271 ) The Crick study to a great extent relied on the antecedently mentioned Marshall definition of the three elements that make up citizenship ; the civil, the societal and the political. These elements were underpinned by the thought of thekid as a hereafter citizen. ( Brandom, 2007:272 ) One of the recommendations from the Crick study was that citizenship instruction should be given 5 % of course of study clip. That and other recommendations helped organize the demands for citizenship instruction in the Revised National Curriculum 2000. The Revised National Curriculum 2000 incorporates three strands:understanding societal and moral duty ; going involved in the community ; and developing political literacy† ( QCA/DfEE, 1999:6 cited in ( Brandom, 2007:272 ) . As a consequence of these three strands, students are to:become informed citizens ; develop accomplishments of question and communicating ; develop accomplishments of engagement and responsible action.†( QCA/DfEE, 1999:6 cited in ( Brandom, 2007:272 ) Unlike most England, most of Europe, North America and Australia, citizenship has non of all time been officially introduced into the Scots schools course of study. In the 2000 audience paper Education for Citizenship in Scotland stated that citizenship instruction in Scots schools wouldâ€Å"not affect the creative activity of a new capable ‘citizenship education’ – or the version of any individual bing country of the curriculum† .( Scots Executive 2000:16 ) Alternatively it would be done throughâ€Å"combinations of larning experiences set in the day-to-day life of the school, distinct countries of the course of study, cross-curricular experiences and activities affecting links with the local community.†( Scots Executive 2000:16 ) The documents rank of the reappraisal group was chaired by Professor Pamela Munn of Edinburgh University who supported the sentiment of a whole-school attack to citizenship instruction, noticing that: â€Å"To look to turn up ‘citizenship education’ in one peculiar post-14 class of survey would look to be inconsistent with the wide position of instruction for citizenship being advanced in this paper.†( Scots Executive 2000 cited in Arthur and Wright, 2003:16 ) The reappraisal group concluded that citizenship instruction in Scotland isâ€Å"integral to the instruction of pupils and dwelling in the whole course of study and ethos of the school.†( Arthur and Wright, 2003:16 ) . The shortly to be introduced course of study for excellence portions the same positions of the non-introduction of citizenship instruction as a discreet topic. In the 2004 course of study reappraisal group paper ‘a course of study for excellence’ , citizenship instruction is still presented as being a whole-school attack but it besides encompasses the household and the community: â€Å"They should be successful scholars, confident persons, responsible citizens and effectual subscribers to society and at work. By supplying construction, support and way to immature people’s acquisition, the course of study should enable them to develop these four capacities. The course of study should complement the of import parts of households and communities†( Scots Executive 2004:12 ) In 2006 ‘a course of study for excellence’ advancement and proposal was published. This paper was follow up to the 2004 course of study reappraisal group paper antecedently discussed. Again the whole-school attack is advocated, this clip with outside support fromother administrations, doing citizenship instruction wholly active non merely across the whole school or local community but globally. â€Å"The whole school has duty for developing the four capacities in every kid and immature individual. This has deductions for the parts of each grownup who supports kids and immature people, and for whole-school policies, planning and partnerships with other organisations.†( Scots Executive 2006:8 ) 5. Results The focal point of this undertaking was to look at how citizenship was both presented and implemented within my 2nd placement school. I farther investigated its execution within my ain topics section and besides looked for grounds of cross-curricular activities. For the intents of researching this undertaking, I conducted staff interviews and mediated a pupil’s focal point group. This allowed me look into which elements of citizenship were included by the staff whilst learning their ain topic. It besides provided me with every bit pot as to the extent of the staff and students cognition and apprehension of citizenship. In looking at learning citizenship within my ain topic I designed four lessons on universe music. This gave my category and I the chance to analyze other civilizations and their music. The stuffs produced which were specific to the civilizations we were look intoing ; Brazil, Cuba, Indonesia and Ghana. Through the lessons the category were able to ; discourse the background to the music and how the music made them experience, develop their practical accomplishments by playing the music both separately and as a group and larn how to listen efficaciously. ( To most pupils music is a background noise ; they ‘hear’ music in a lift, in a shopping Centre and on their MP3 participants as they study. ) Teaching music and citizenship in this ‘active’ manner allowed me much range for personal contemplation, inquiring myself ; what went good, what needed to be improved and what would make otherwise following clip? This in bend helped with my ain personal development no n merely as a music instructor but as a ‘whole’ instructor. 6. Methods In researching this undertaking I decided to utilize a assortment of different methods. My chief grounds for this was that in my old research undertaking I used observation as the chief line of my probe and I felt that if I used a assortment of research methods this clip I could anticipate better responses from both staff and students likewise. 6.1 Staff interviews Through the schools trustee, meetings were arranged with members of staff who were willing to notice on how citizenship has been implemented in their section in the school. The staff members I met up with were: the Citizenship Co-ordinator, the Head of the Department for Science, the Head of the Department for Social Education and a instructor from the music section. A meeting of 15 to twenty proceedingss with each of the above staff members was arranged. I had prepared and circulated a figure of cardinal inquiries in progress of the meetings. ( Appendix 1 ) . The inquiries focused on how citizenship is delivered in both their section and through the school as a whole. I asked each member of staff for permission to tape the interviews I conducted and all agreed. This enabled me to look into the inside informations I had written down against the recordings, therefore guaranting that my analysis was accurate and presented a true contemplation of their positions. what are the Advantages/disadvantages? The interviews with the staff members proved to be really successful, with all my purposes and aims being met. At the terminal of each interview they besides agreed to do themselves available by electronic mail to clear up any issues that might hold arisen whilst I was composing up the research. 6.2 Pupil’s focal point group With the schools permission, a focal point group dwelling of a cross subdivision of S1 to S6 students was arranged to take topographic point one lunch period. A sheet incorporating the chief subject headers of the treatment was given to the students taking portion in order to give them clip to fix for it. ( Appendix 2 ) . My undertaking as the go-between of the group was to maintain the treatment unfastened ended whilst maintaining it on the subject. To assist maintain them farther on topic and aid direct their thought I wrote the capable headers of the subjects to be discussed on the room’s whiteboard. A high degree of pupil interaction ensued, from which the information for this study emerged. This method of garnering informations from the students has it advantages and disadvantages. The advantages being that it allows for a non-threatening attack therefore ensuing in an unfastened uninhibited treatment. The usage of this method besides gave the students a manner to discourse and if need be, dispute each other’s positions in a safe, friendly, non-threatening environment. The Disadvantage of carry oning the focal point group was that a few of the stronger personalities began to act upon and take over group treatment thereby doing it hard for the quieter pupils to aerate their positions. Because of this I often asked the group if everyone agreed with a remark made or asked if that was what everyone idea. I besides called on a twosome of students by name to detect their sentiments on remarks made. I once more asked and received permission from the school and the students to enter the focal point group treatment ; this allowed me to intercede the group without holding to rapidly compose down what was being said. In making this I was able to accurately summarize the content of the treatment at a ulterior clip. Twelve students, two from each twelvemonth, attended the focal point group and their parts to it will be analysed in the undermentioned chapter. 7. Analysis From the beginning it needs to be recognised that with merely four staff members interviewed and one pupils’ focal point group conducted, the findings presented in this professional undertaking can merely be regarded as being preliminary, nevertheless, my research did bring out a figure of interesting findings refering the execution of citizenship within the school. The balance of this subdivision will analyze the positions and sentiments made during both the interviews with the staff members and the pupil’s focal point group. Because merely four staff members were interviewed, their positions are presented individually, therefore leting for a more elaborate geographic expedition of them. 7.1 Staff interviews Meeting One: Coordinator of Citizenship This staff member was honest in explained to me that he was new to the school and that although portion of his responsibilities included being the Coordinator of Citizenship he was still seeking to familiarize himself with the duties and responsibilities refering it. He is at the minute set abouting an audit on Citizenship within the school in which he was looking at ; where the school is at with it, what repeat between the sections there is and what the school demand to make more away. He knew from meetings he had attended within the school that all sections had Citizenship listed as something they were to look at in their betterment programs but until he knew the consequence of his audit he wouldn’t cognize if or how it had been implemented. He told met the school was seeking to incorporate Citizenship instead than hold it viewed as a â€Å"bolt on’ . Assorted schemes had been introduced this school twelvemonth such as junior and senior pupil councils, both of which had a budget, the re-establishment of houses and house captains and the execution of activity yearss such as â€Å"succeed and enterprise† through-out the twelvemonth. Meeting Two: Head of Department for Science This member of staff expressed that she was worried when she agreed to be interviewed that her section would be found to be missing in incorporating the elements of citizenship instruction into their instruction, nevertheless, the audit she did on her section proved these fright to be baseless. Knowledge and Understanding are promoted in Science utilizing subjects such as ; eco chemical science, genetic sciences and atomic chemical science. In eco chemical science the students study the environment, the effects of pollution on it and planetary heating. Geneticss trades with the ethical issues of familial technology. Nuclear chemical science looks at atomic power and what options are available. Skills and Aptitude: it was explained to me that the school ran their Higher course of study over two old ages, therefore gave the section clip to include developing the students accomplishments of presenting, treatment and debating. Through group work where the students are encouraged to believe critically about the subjects covered and the experiments they are asked to execute. They are encouraged to larn and happen out through research, analysis and geographic expedition after which their consequences are presented to the remainder of the groups/teams where they are argued, discussed and debated. An illustration of this is the genetic sciences unit in which familial technology and trial tubing babes are discussed. Informed statements are given for and against, the students are encouraged to gain that there is no right or wrong here merely their sentiment. Valuess: the scientific discipline section has a set of regulations for regard ; students are encouraged to esteem themselves and their equals and instructors. They are taught to esteem the schoolroom and the equipment within it. They are besides taught to value the sentiment of others, as all points of position are valid. Respect for the wider community, the environment and the planet are amongst other values taught. Meeting Three: Head of Department for Social Education This member of staff was really experient in showing and presenting the societal instruction programme, he demonstrated an obvious apprehension of how citizenship should be integrated in the course of study and across the school as a whole. Knowledge and Understanding: Social Education is timetabled for an hr a hebdomad for 1st to 4th twelvemonth students and for two hours a hebdomad for 5th and 6th. Within Social Education cognition and apprehension are promoted utilizing such subjects as ; money and the universe of banking, sex instruction, right and duties, equal chances, personal development, callings education, societal development, where the school sits within East Lothian, within Scotland and the universe as a whole, drugs and intoxicant instruction and maintaining safe. Within the rights and duties unit students are taught the schools anti-bulling policy, any major bulling incidents result in the issue of a rights and bulling contract, this has resulted in a 95 % success rate of them being resolved in school. Skills and Aptitudes: promoting and developing accomplishments in students to get by with a altering multi-cultural universe, being taught regard for others and acceptance through a partnership with themselves, the school, their parents and the constabulary, that their school is a contemplation of society – what they learn in school can model and determine society, communicating and group work/ teamwork, organic structure linguistic communication and get bying accomplishments for both the schoolroom and society – accomplishments and schemes are provided to assist the students cope within their equal group and besides assist them to avoid being coerced into sex, taking drugs or imbibing intoxicant, critical thought – students are encouraged to gain that during arguments there are no right or incorrect replies, they are given relevant information so that they can do an informed pick, they are taught to believe, brace and portion – students are asked to belie ve of their ain sentiment on a topic, brace up with a spouse and discourse it, take portion in a group treatment, feed back to the category therefore advancing effectual part and critical thought. Valuess: within the Social Education lessons students are expected to esteem themselves, their equals and their instructors. They are taught to esteem the schoolroom and to make a safe environment for everyone within it. Through their partnership with the constabulary, the school and their parents they are taught to esteem the jurisprudence, democracy and justness. They are taught to stand up for themselves and support their ain point of position. Meeting Four: Music Teacher This member of staff was new to the section and radius of her experience both in that and her old school. Disappointingly, she expressed uncertainties as to why universe music should be taught as portion of the course of study. Knowledge and Understanding are promoted in music through utilizing such subjects as universe music. In universe music the students study music from Cuba, Brazil, Ghana, India and Indonesia, larning about their civilization, the instruments they use and the differences between their music and music from the West. Students are besides taught non to blow the planets resources by exchanging off electrical equipment when it is non in usage. Skills and Aptitude: a big portion of developing accomplishments and aptitudes in music is done through the engagement in different events with in the community. The music section has taken students to entertain the senior citizens at Christmas clip, had pupils participate in the Rotary club’s immature instrumentalist of the twelvemonth competition and has been invited to sing/perform at the gap of a new primary school and lodging association. Students are encouraged to fall in the assorted orchestras and bands that the school runs therefore giving them the chance to work in groups and construct squad work. Opinions can besides be communicated through vocal authorship. Valuess: students are taught to esteem themselves, their equals and both the schoolroom and instrumental instructors. The section besides teach students to esteem all genres of music and to hold regard for the schoolroom and the equipment within it. 7.2 Pupils focal point group As was outlined before in this undertaking, a focal point group session was carried out in order to find the pupils’ cognition and apprehension of citizenship and how it was taught to them both officially and informally. At the on-set of the session the significance of citizenship was briefly discussed with the group, after which there was a directed treatment on six different issues refering it. The treatment produced the undermentioned consequences: Issue One: Citizenship in the school The students highlighted a figure of activities that they though had helped them to develop both personally and socially. These included engagement in school trips to Germany and Switzerland, cultural visits such as a visit to the Royal Scottish Museum and a community committednesss plan, which involved picking up litter, endeavor, presentations and school shows. Issue Two: Social & A ; Moral issues The Pupils discussed their engagement in implementing the schools’ anti-bullying enterprises which ab initio had started as a 5th twelvemonth community undertaking. They felt that racism was non a job in the school. The students put frontward one point of grudge of non being allowed to run any fund elevation activities in the school. They felt they would wish the chance to raise money for worthy causes. Issue Three: Rights & A ; duties The students felt they had a voice in the school through both the junior and senior pupils’ councils. Their representatives were democratically elected and attended regular meetings of the councils provided a vehicle where pupil’s issues could be raised. Students are besides put into houses, which have house captains. The houses are awarded points for good behavior, attending, competition wins etc. Issue Four: The school & A ; wider community There was much grounds of an engagement in the wider community. As portion of the antecedently mentioned community committednesss plan some students had sang at the gap of a new primary school and had read poesy read poetry the occupants of an old people place. Issue Five: Politics & A ; Democracy There was small grounds of any cognition of political relations or democracy apart from the students who had or were analyzing Modern Studies. Issue Six: The environment Students noted that, the school runs an Eco Club in which both instructors and students discuss manner of salvaging the environment, ( local, national and universe ) . They felt that more recycling could be done within the school. There was merely one recycling bin and that was in the teachers’ auto park. The group had asked for money to supply sections with their ain recycling bin but their petition was denied. 8. Decisions In roll uping the grounds from students and staff and through observation of the bringing of citizenship at whole school degree, it is clear that the range of citizenship is far-reaching. Areas such as rights and duties, political relations and democracy, community public assistance, informed decision-making, regard for others and a scope of participatory activities, provided a rich beginning of grounds. The student focal point groups and teacher interviews revealed clear grounds that elements of the above subjects were covered through the bringing of distinct capable content. In peculiar, the content of Modern Studies included a more comprehensive survey of political establishments and political democratic procedures more finitely than any other curricular country. However, curricular topics such as English and History provided subjects which examined rights and duties and political relations and democracy through the survey of war and the moral issues involved. The survey of Geography and the distinct scientific disciplines besides provided survey of the environment. Religious and Moral Education explored societal and moral issues and encouraged thoughtful and responsible action and an grasp of developing states, analyzing poorness, dearth and drouth. Home Economics developed pupil cognition and apprehension of dietetic issues, healthy feeding and the importance of hygiene. Physical Education encouraged healthy life styles and the grasp of the construct of ‘healthy head, healthy body’ . Subjects included in the Business Education and Information Technology section, for illustration, Business Administration developed an grasp in students of money direction and endeavor and, besides, allowed students to reflect on the impact of engineering on day-to-day lives. Modern Languages developed consciousness of the importance of different civilizations and the installation to go abroad enhanced the development of foreign linguistic communication accomplishments and the grasp of foreign civilizations at first manus. Art and Design allowed pupils the chance to develop originative ability and provided an alternate agencies of look. However, although the above curricular topics delivered facets of citizenship through pervasion, the Personal and Social Development ( PSD ) programme allocated dedicated clip to many facets of citizenship, including rights and duties, for illustration, in relation to smoke, intoxicant, sexual issues and moral quandary. Furthermore, this topic provided the chance for unfastened treatment, promoting students to be tolerant of dissension and minority positions and to heighten their decision-making accomplishments through working with others. In add-on, the project of work experience arrangements promoted a direct nexus to the universe of work. This was further enhanced by the installation of mock interviews for students by representatives of the concern community prior to go forthing school. The aid of Careers Scotland besides impacted on pupils’ attitudes to go forthing school. My observations of citizenship at whole-school degree revealed citizenship in action to which the students involved seemed wholly committed. Activities observed included Education Action where representatives from developing states addressed whole-school assemblies. This was a consequence of a instructor at the school holding visited Uganda, which led to pupils going actively involved in fund-raising for Uganda. The assembly provided the chance for students to manus over a check as a consequence of their fundraising activities. A farther assembly demonstrated S4 students giving whole-school presentations on their work experience, leting them to develop their personal qualities and accomplishments and to do a utile part to their fellow students. The student council, to which category representatives were elected, besides provided the chance for students to take part and lend to the wider life of the school. Unfortunately, nevertheless, I was unable to detect meetings during my arrangement as these were postponed owing to preliminary scrutinies. Other whole-school activities included Young Enterprise, pupil engagement in assorted competitions, debating and Duke of Edinburgh Award, all designed to develop the accomplishments included in the development of citizenship. In decision, it is my position that students frequently did non appreciate when citizenship was being delivered. It was merely through treatment at focal point groups that they came to gain to the full what citizenship entailed. This possibly suggests that, in Scots instruction, citizenship is frequently inexplicit in its bringing through distinct curricular countries. As indicated earlier, PSD is much more expressed, in both content and bringing, yet pupil perceptual experience of this topic is possibly non every bit high as other topics, which are assessed at national degree. However, my overarching decision is that pupil engagement in citizenship was at its strongest through active engagement by students. When allocated a distinguishable undertaking or, so, when this undertaking was suggested by a student, and when given duty to see the undertaking through to a successful decision, students responded with motive, finding and enthusiasm. Such activities involved students in informed decision-making, demoing regard for others, being responsible and developing personal accomplishments and qualities. From my observations, nevertheless, I would reason that the greatest nothingness is the absence of developing political literacy in students. Unless pupils survey Modern Studies, and numerically really few bashs, so I fear many students will go forth school politically illiterate to a greater or lesser extent. This, I would propose, is an insufficiency in Scots instruction, which needs to be addressed. 9. Deductions and Recommendations This undertaking has investigated the presentation and execution of citizenship in Scots schools. The research gathered whilst analyzing citizenship in both the topic course of study and the school as a whole would look to back up the thought that citizenship is taught more successfully when it is spread through out the whole course of study instead than being presented as a discreet topic. Although most students did non cognize the term ‘citizenship’ , they gained practical experience of the elements of it through the schools capable course of study and through the school as a whole. The school course of study is already overcrowded ; a audience paper calledEducation for Citizenship in Scotlandconcluded on the challenges of capable pick in Scots schools that, â€Å"the response to this state of affairs should non be to qualify any individual class of survey of ‘citizenship education’ as portion of each pupils core programme.( Scots Executive, 2000: p26 ) . In reasoning this undertaking there are three recommendations its writer would do to assist take citizenship instruction frontward in Scots instruction:Students need to be actively involved in citizenship instruction, taking portion in arguments, treatments, enterprises and undertakings.Rather than go forth political relations and democracy to modern surveies, ( which after 2nd twelvemonth becomes an optional topic ) , some survey of them needs to be included someplace else in the course of study. Not to make so, will bring forth students who are politically uninformed.Rather than do citizenship instruction a discreet capable, as it is in England, Scotland should go on implementing it as portion of the ethos of the school and portion of the course of study as a whole.Bibliography Andrews, G. ( 1991 ) , Citizenship. Lawrence and Wishart Limited, London. pp. 21 – 26. Arthur, J. and Wright, D. ( 2001 ) . Teaching Citizenship in the Secondary School. David Fulton Publishers Ltd London. pp. 5 – 16. Cogan, J.J. and Derricott, R. ( 1998 ) . Citizenship for the twenty-first Century: An International Perspective on Education. Kogan Page Limited, London. pp. 2 – 4. Kennedy, K.J. ( 1997 ) . Citizenship Education and the Modern State. Falmer Press, London. pp. 67 – 69. Scots Executive Education Department Report. ( 2001 ) . Education for Citizenship in Scotland: A Paper for Discussion and Development. Scots Executive. ( 2000 ) . National Priorities in School Education. [ on-line ] . Crown Copyright, Scottish Statutory Instrument No 443. Available from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.scotland.gov.uk/education/nationalpriorities/priorities.asp, ( p. 1 ) .

The Host Chapter 44: Healed

â€Å"Wanda†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"We don't have time. I'd do it myself, but I can't get the angle right. There's no other way.† â€Å"I don't think I can†¦ do it.† â€Å"For Jamie, even?† I pushed the good side of my face as hard as I could against the headrest of the passenger seat and closed my eyes. Jared was holding the rough fist-sized stone I'd found. He'd been weighing it in his hand for five minutes. â€Å"You just have to get the first few layers of skin off. Just hide the scar, that's all. C'mon, Jared, we have to hurry. Jamie†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Tell him I said to do it now. And make it a good one. â€Å"Mel says do it now. And make sure you do it hard enough. Get it all the first time.† Silence. â€Å"Do it, Jared!† He took a deep breath, a gasp. I felt the air move and squeezed my eyes tighter. It made a squishing sound and a thud-that was the first thing I noticed-and then the shock of the blow wore off, and I felt it, too. â€Å"Ungh,† I groaned. I hadn't meant to make any sound. I knew that would make it worse for him. But so much was involuntary with this body. Tears sprang up in my eyes, and I coughed to hide a sob. My head rang, vibrated in aftershock. â€Å"Wanda? Mel? I'm sorry!† His arms wrapped around us, pulled us into his chest. â€Å"‘S okay,† I whimpered. â€Å"We're okay. Did you get it all?† His hand touched my chin, turned my head. â€Å"Ahh,† he gasped, sickened. â€Å"I took half your face off. I'm so sorry.† â€Å"No, that's good. That's good. Let's go.† â€Å"Right.† His voice was still weak, but he leaned me back into my seat, settling me carefully, and then the car rumbled beneath us. Ice-cold air blew in my face, shocking me, stinging my raw cheek. I'd forgotten what air-conditioning felt like. I opened my eyes. We were driving down a smooth wash-smoother than it should have been, carefully altered to be this way. It snaked away from us, coiling around the brush. I couldn't see very far ahead. I pulled the visor down and flipped open the mirror. In the shadowy moonlight, my face was black and white. Black all across the right side, oozing down my chin, dripping across my neck, and seeping into the collar of my new, clean shirt. My stomach heaved. â€Å"Good job,† I whispered. â€Å"How much pain are you in?† â€Å"Not much,† I lied. â€Å"Anyway, it won't hurt much longer. How far are we from Tucson?† Just then, we reached pavement. Funny how the sight of it made my heart race in panic. Jared stopped, keeping the car hidden in the brush. He got out and removed the tarps and chains from the bumper, putting them in the trunk. He got back in and eased the car forward, checking carefully to make sure the highway was empty. He reached for the headlights. â€Å"Wait,† I whispered. I couldn't speak louder. I felt so exposed here. â€Å"Let me drive.† He looked at me. â€Å"It can't look like I walked to the hospital like this. Too many questions. I have to drive. You hide in the back and tell me where to go. Is there something you can hide under?† â€Å"Okay,† he said slowly. He put the car into reverse and pulled it back into the deeper brush. â€Å"Okay. I'll hide. But if you take us somewhere I don't tell you to go†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Oh! Melanie was stung by his doubt, as was I. My voice was flat. â€Å"Shoot me.† He didn't answer. He got out, leaving the engine running. I slid across the cup holders into his seat. I heard the trunk slam. Jared climbed into the backseat, a thick plaid blanket under his arm. â€Å"Turn right at the road,† he said. The car was an automatic, but it had been a long time and I was unsure behind the wheel. I moved ahead carefully, pleased to find that I remembered how to drive. The highway was still empty. I pulled out onto the road, my heart reacting to the open space again. â€Å"Lights,† Jared said. His voice came from low on the bench. I searched till I found the switch, then flicked them on. They seemed horribly bright. We weren't far from Tucson -I could see a yellowish glow of color against the sky. The lights of the city ahead. â€Å"You could drive a little faster.† â€Å"I'm right at the limit,† I protested. He paused for a second. â€Å"Souls don't speed?† I laughed. The sound was only a tad hysterical. â€Å"We obey all laws, traffic laws included.† The lights became more than a glow-they turned into individual points of brightness. Green signs informed me of my exit options. † Take Ina Road.† I followed his instructions. He kept his voice low, though, enclosed as we were, we could both have shouted. It was hard to be in this unfamiliar city. To see houses and apartments and stores with signs lit up. To know I was surrounded, outnumbered. I imagined what it must feel like for Jared. His voice was remarkably calm. But he'd done this before, many times. Other cars were on the road now. When their lights washed my windshield, I cringed in terror. Don't fall apart now, Wanda. You have to be strong for Jamie. This won't work if you can't do that. I can. I can do it. I concentrated on Jamie, and my hands were steadier on the wheel. Jared directed me through the mostly sleeping city. The Healing facility was just a small place. It must have been a medical building once-doctors' offices, rather than an actual hospital. The lights were bright through most of the windows, through the glass front. I could see a woman behind a greeting desk. She didn't look up at my headlights. I drove to the darkest corner of the parking lot. I slid my arms through the straps of the backpack. It wasn't new, but it was in good shape. Perfect. There was just one more thing to do. â€Å"Quick, give me the knife.† â€Å"Wanda†¦ I know you love Jamie, but I really don't think you could use it. You're not a fighter.† â€Å"Not for them, Jared. I need a wound.† He gasped. â€Å"You have a wound. That's enough!† â€Å"I need one like Jamie's. I don't know enough about Healing. I have to see exactly what to do. I would have done it before, but I wasn't sure I'd be able to drive.† â€Å"No. Not again.† â€Å"Give it to me now. Someone will notice if I don't go inside soon.† Jared thought it through quickly. He was the best, as Jeb had said, because he could see what had to be done and do it fast. I heard the steely sound of the knife coming out of the sheath. â€Å"Be very careful. Not too deep.† â€Å"You want to do it?† He inhaled sharply. â€Å"No.† â€Å"Okay.† I took the ugly knife. It had a heavy handle and was very sharp; it came to a tapered point at the tip. I didn't let myself think about it. I didn't want to give myself a chance to be a coward. The arm, not the leg-that's all I paused to decide. My knees were scarred. I didn't want to have to hide that, too. I held my left arm out; my hand was shaking. I braced it against the door and then twisted my head so that I could bite down on the headrest. I held the knife's handle awkwardly but tightly in my right hand. I pressed the point against the skin of my forearm so I wouldn't miss. Then I closed my eyes. Jared was breathing too hard. I had to be fast or he would stop me. Just pretend it's a shovel opening the ground, I told myself. I jammed the knife into my arm. The headrest muffled my scream, but it was still too loud. The knife fell from my hand-jerking sickeningly out from the muscle-and then clunked against the floor. â€Å"Wanda!† Jared rasped. I couldn't answer yet. I tried to choke back the other screams I felt coming. I'd been right not to do this before driving. â€Å"Let me see!† â€Å"Stay there,† I gasped. â€Å"Don't move.† I heard the blanket rustling behind me despite my warning. I pulled my left arm against my body and yanked the door open with my right hand. Jared's hand brushed my back as I half fell out the door. It wasn't a restraint. It was comfort. â€Å"I'll be right back,† I coughed out, and then I kicked the door shut behind me. I stumbled across the lot, fighting nausea and panic. They seemed to balance each other out-one keeping the other from taking control of my body. The pain wasn't too bad-or rather, I couldn't feel it as much anymore. I was going into shock. Too many kinds of pain, too close together. Hot liquid rolled down my fingers and dripped to the pavement. I wondered if I could move those fingers. I was afraid to try. The woman behind the reception desk-middle-aged, with dark chocolate skin and a few silver threads in her black hair-jumped to her feet when I lurched through the automatic doors. â€Å"Oh, no! Oh, dear!† She grabbed a microphone, and her next words echoed from the ceiling, magnified. â€Å"Healer Knits! I need you in reception! This is an emergency!† â€Å"No.† I tried to speak calmly, but I swayed in place. â€Å"I'm okay. Just an accident.† She put the microphone down and hurried around to where I stood swaying. Her arm went around my waist. â€Å"Oh, honey, what happened to you?† â€Å"So careless,† I muttered. â€Å"I was hiking†¦ I fell down the rocks. I was†¦ cleaning up after dinner. A knife was in my hand†¦Ã¢â‚¬  My hesitations seemed like part of the shock to her. She didn't look at me with suspicion-or humor, the way Ian sometimes did when I lied. Only concern. â€Å"You poor dear! What's your name?† â€Å"Glass Spires,† I told her, using the rather generic name of a herd member from my time with the Bears. â€Å"Okay, Glass Spires. Here comes the Healer. You'll be fine in just a moment.† I didn't feel panicked at all anymore. The kindly woman patted my back. So gentle, so caring. She would never harm me. The Healer was a young woman. Her hair, skin, and eyes were all a similar shade of light brown. It made her unusual looking-monochromatic. She wore tan scrubs that only added to that impression. â€Å"Wow,† she said. â€Å"I'm Healer Knits Fire. I'll get you fixed up directly. What happened?† I told my story again as the two women led me down a hallway and then through the very first door. They had me lie down on the paper-covered bed. The room was familiar. I'd been in only one place like this, but Melanie's childhood was full of such memories. The short row of double cabinets, the sink where the Healer was washing her hands, the bright, clean white walls†¦ â€Å"First things first,† Knits Fire said cheerfully. She pulled a cabinet open. I tried to focus my eyes, knowing this was important. The cabinet was full of rows and rows of stacked white cylinders. She took one down, reaching for it without searching; she knew what she wanted. The small container had a label, but I couldn't read it. â€Å"A little no pain should help, don't you think?† I saw the label again as she twisted the lid off. Two short words. No Pain? Was that what it said? â€Å"Open your mouth, Glass Spires.† I obeyed. She took a small, thin square-it looked like tissue paper-and laid it on my tongue. It dissolved at once. There was no flavor. I swallowed automatically. â€Å"Better?† the Healer asked. And it was. Already. My my head was clear-I could concentrate without difficulty. The pain had melted away with the tiny square. Disappeared. I blinked, shocked. â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"I know you feel fine now, but please don't move. Your injuries are not treated yet.† â€Å"Of course.† â€Å"Cerulean, could you get us some water? Her mouth seems dry.† â€Å"At once, Healer Knits.† The older woman left the room. The Healer turned back to her cabinets, opening a different one this time. This, too, was filled with white containers. â€Å"Here we are.† She pulled one from the top of a stack, then took another from the other side. Almost as if she were trying to help me fulfill my mission, she listed the names as she reached for them. â€Å"Clean-inside and out†¦ Heal†¦ Seal†¦ And where is†¦ ah, Smooth. Don't want a scar on that pretty face, do we?† â€Å"Ah†¦ no.† â€Å"Don't worry. You'll be perfect again.† â€Å"Thank you.† â€Å"You're very welcome.† She leaned over me with another white cylinder. The top of this one came off with a pop, and there was an aerosol spray nozzle underneath. She sprayed my forearm first, coating the wound with clear, odorless mist. â€Å"Healing must be a fulfilling profession.† My voice sounded just right. Interested, but not unduly so. â€Å"I haven't been in a Healing facility since insertion. This is very interesting.† â€Å"Yes, I like it.† She started spraying my face. â€Å"What are you doing now?† She smiled. I guessed that I was not the first curious soul. â€Å"This is Clean. It will make sure nothing foreign stays in the wound. It kills off any of the microbes that might infect the wound.† â€Å"Clean,† I repeated to myself. â€Å"And the Inside Clean, just in case anything has snuck into your system. Inhale this, please.† She had a different white cylinder in her hand, a thinner bottle with a pump rather than an aerosol top. She puffed a cloud of mist into the air above my face. I sucked in a breath. The mist tasted like mint. â€Å"And this is Heal,† Knits Fire continued, twisting the cap off the next canister, revealing a small pouring spout. â€Å"It encourages your tissues to rejoin, to grow the way they should.† She dribbled a tiny bit of the clear liquid into the wide cut on my arm, then she pushed the edges of the wound together. I could feel her touch, but there was no pain. â€Å"I'll seal this up before I move on.† She opened another container, this one a pliable tube, and then squeezed out a line of thick, clear jelly onto her finger. â€Å"Like glue,† she told me. â€Å"It holds everything together and lets the Heal do its job.† She wiped it over my arm in one swift pass. â€Å"Okay, you can move that now. Your arm is fine.† I held it up to look. A faint pink line was visible under the shiny gel. The blood was still wet on my arm, but there was no source anymore. As I watched, the Healer cleaned my skin with one quick pass of a damp towel. â€Å"Turn your face this way, please. Hmm, you must have hit those rocks just exactly wrong. What a mess.† â€Å"Yes. It was a bad fall.† â€Å"Well, thank goodness you were able to drive yourself here.† She was lightly dripping Heal onto my cheek, smearing it with the tips of her fingers. â€Å"Ah, I love to watch it work. Looks much better already. Okay†¦ around the edges.† She smiled to herself. â€Å"Maybe one more coat. I want this to be erased.† She worked for a minute longer. â€Å"Very nice.† â€Å"Here's some water,† the older woman said as she came through the door. â€Å"Thank you, Cerulean.† â€Å"Let me know if you need anything more. I'll be up front.† â€Å"Thanks.† Cerulean left. I wondered if she was from the Flower Planet. Blue flowers were rare-one might take a name from that. â€Å"You can sit now. How do you feel?† I pulled myself up. â€Å"Perfect.† It was true. I hadn't felt so healthy in a long time. The sharp shift from pain to ease made the sensation more powerful. â€Å"That's just how it should be. Okay, let's dust on a little Smooth.† She twisted the last cylinder's top and shook an iridescent powder into her hand. She patted it into my cheek, then patted another handful onto my arm. â€Å"You'll always have a small line on your arm,† she said apologetically. â€Å"Like your neck. A deep wound†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She shrugged. Absentmindedly, she brushed the hair back from my neck and examined the scar. â€Å"This was nicely done. Who was your Healer?† â€Å"Um†¦ Faces Sunward,† I said, pulling the name from one of my old students. â€Å"I was in†¦ Eureka, Montana. I didn't like the cold. I moved south.† So many lies. I felt a twist of anxiety in my stomach. â€Å"I started out in Maine,† she said, not noticing anything amiss in my voice. As she spoke, she cleaned the blood from my neck. â€Å"It was too cold for me, too. What's your Calling?† â€Å"Um†¦ I serve food. In a Mexican restaurant in†¦ Phoenix. I like spicy food.† â€Å"Me, too.† She wasn't looking at me funny. She was wiping my cheek now. â€Å"Very nice. No worries, Glass Spires. Your face looks great.† â€Å"Thank you, Healer.† â€Å"Of course. Would you like some water?† â€Å"Yes, please.† I kept a grip on myself. It wouldn't do to bolt the glass down the way I wanted to. I wasn't able to stop myself from finishing it all, though. It tasted too good. â€Å"Would you like more?† â€Å"I†¦ yes, that would be nice. Thank you.† â€Å"I'll be right back.† The second she was out the door, I slid off the mattress. The paper crackled, freezing me in place. She didn't dart back in. I had only seconds. It had taken Cerulean a few minutes to get the water. Maybe it would take the Healer just as long. Maybe the cool, pure water was far away from this room. Maybe. I ripped the pack off my shoulders and wrenched the drawstrings open. I started with the second cabinet. There was the stacked column of Heal. I grabbed the whole column and let it clatter quietly into the bottom of my pack. What would I say if she caught me? What lie could I tell? I took the two kinds of Clean next, from the first cabinet. There was a second stack behind the first of each, and I took half of those, too. Then the No Pain, both stacks of that. I was about to turn back for the Seal, when the label of the next row of cylinders caught my attention. Cool. For fevers? There were no instructions, just the label. I took the stack. Nothing here would hurt a human body. I was sure of that. I grabbed all the Seal and two cans of Smooth. I couldn't press my luck any further. I closed the cabinets quietly and threw my arms through the straps of the pack. I leaned against the mattress, making another crackle. I tried to look relaxed. She didn't come back. I checked the clock. It had been one minute. How far away was the water? Two minutes. Three minutes. Had my lies been as obvious to her as they were to me? Sweat started to dew up on my forehead. I wiped it away quickly. What if she brought back a Seeker? I thought of the small pill in my pocket, and my hands shook. I could do it, though. For Jamie. I heard quiet footsteps then, two sets, coming down the hall.

Man’s Best Friend

The dog, or man’s best friend as we call them, is an animal that turns out we can comprehend much better than we think. Their behavior actually isn’t too different from our own, since for both humans and dogs, emotion causes our certain behaviors. Although technically speaking, there is no exact way to tell if a dog tends to feel emotion or not, but with a bit of common sense and observation, the majority of people agree that animals do have feelings and scientists are even accepting the idea. Jennifer Arnold, a service dog trainer, has experienced watching a dog become depressed, angry, and even embarrassed.As she states, â€Å"time has taught me that dogs, like humans, are emotional creatures. Just watch a dog whose beloved owner returns home from a trip – the dog jumps for joy. † (Arnold, Jennifer. Through a Dog's Eyes. 2010. ) Any dog who loves their owner would do that, which is enough proof to show that the dog is feeling an emotion: happiness. Studi es even show that it seems to be that a dog will behave a certain way depending on their owner’s emotion, as if they can somehow sense or understand what we feel. Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, also agreed with those who believed animals have emotions.In his book, â€Å"The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,† he records every expressive movement he observed in animals. For almost every observation, it included the entire appearance of the face and the appearance of the dog’s tail, which seemed to reflect what emotion the dog was feeling. For example, Darwin noticed that when dogs want attention they tend to rub against or lick their owners, they slightly wag their tail, and also lower their ears to exclude any noise and concentrate on only their owner’s affection.As I mentioned in the last paragraph, emotion was one thing that changed animal behavior. Not only does the aging process affect the physical appearances of an individual, but it also affects people and dogs mentally. Like humans, dogs age too and the older they become they begin acting and feeling like their age. As a child, everyone is always so full of energy and as we get older we seem to get lazier and loss interest in everything around us; well the same goes for dogs. Some of us become handicapped, lose hair, and our senses just become weaker.The aging process does not affect all dogs though, for there have been dogs at ten years of age who have not had any physical or mental incapacitation, while others suffer internal organ failure, failing senses, or orthopedic problems. It mainly depends on dog breeds, health, and simply just luck. It turns out that dogs are the most common victims of animal cruelty, with the percentage of 64. 5%. (â€Å"Animal Cruelty† Most Common Victims. 2. Humanesociety. org accessed October 15, 2012). Animal cruelty, both physical abuse and neglect, is a huge factor that changes dog’s behavior.It also reflect s back on the topic of emotion, since neglecting dogs can cause extreme sadness or depression (which affects their behavior). Three to four million dogs and cats are euthanized, or killed, every year and five to seven million are usually put in animal shelters. (Sutherlin, Emily. â€Å"Animal Cruelty: Facts, Prevention, Statistics, and Action. † 1. Nowpublic. com accessed October 15, 2012). These numbers are due to the overpopulation of pets in America. Only 10% of dogs in shelters are spayed/neutered, which causes female dogs to produce puppies and lead to more dogs in shelters.Most of these dogs in shelters aren’t adopted because caring for a dog is just too much responsibility. The average cost of basic necessities for dogs (food, medical supply, training, etc. ) is around six hundred to nine hundred dollars a year and because of these high prices, people are practically forced to return their dog to a shelter. (ASPCA, â€Å"Pet Statistics. † Last modified 20 10. Accessed October 29, 2012. aspca. org). Having those dogs in shelters is abuse, because they have them locked up in cages, and with so many dogs to watch not all of them get the amount of attention that is necessary.There are many other types of abuse that people might not even consider as neglect. Emaciation, obesity, dehydration, cuts, bruises, burns, lack of grooming, parasite infestations, abnormal urination, and defecation are all signs of neglect (Sutton, Emma Riley Sutton, eHow contributor, â€Å"Signs of Neglect in Dogs. † Accessed October 14, 2012. www. eHow. com). If you see dogs with these symptoms, they have most likely been abused by their owners. When dogs are abused it can affect them both physically and mentally.Those symptoms include: submissive urinating, hand-shyness, cowering, mistrust, social withdrawal, depression, aggression, and even separation anxiety with a new owner (Bettmann, Theresa Bettmann, eHow contributor, â€Å"Mental Effects of Abuse on a Dog. † Accessed October 14, 2012. www. eHow. com). Communication, another way of changing behavior, is the way people express each other’s thoughts, feelings, and information to one another and comprehending it easily. As Debra Horwitz say, â€Å"Communication is a behavior. † (Kesling, Joyce. CDBC, â€Å"Canine Communication. † Last modified 2005.Accessed October 29, 2012. Responsibledog. net). We humans all speak, although not all of us understand each other because different cultures speak different languages (Spanish, English, French, etc. ). Animals have their own system of communication, or it can be thought of as them having their own language. Communication allows us to understand what others are saying. Without knowing, there is a sense of panic and vulnerability because you have no idea what is going on around you and going back to the previous paragraphs, feeling a certain way causes a certain behavior.Through research I found that there are three components to communication: 1) the person sending the message, 2) the person receiving the message, and 3) the communication signal (Kesling, Joyce. CDBC, â€Å"Canine Communication. † Last modified 2005. Accessed October 29, 2012. Responsibledog. net). So, when an owner and dog cannot communicate it is difficult to know why your dog is acting a certain way. For example, if a dog starts whimpering or yelping, it could be trying to tell us it is in pain or distress.If a dog starts growling, it can be taken as threat, unless it is a playful growl. Dogs also use their body postures as a form of communication, also known as communicating visually. (Kesling, Joyce. CDBC, â€Å"Canine Communication. † Last modified 2005. Accessed October 29, 2012. Responsibledog. net). For example, when a dog has their ears flattened back and has their tail lowered in between their legs, that shows they are frightened. Along with humans, our body language is also a way that allows us to communicate with other people.If a student is sitting straight, has their eyes on the board, and is taking notes it sends a message to the teacher that the student is paying attention. There are also other types of communication between humans, which would be formal (where most people use a type of business or corporation speaking format) and informal (which is where people have more unrestrained conversations); and although it isn’t completely discovered yet, there might be the possibility of different types of communication between dogs, since there are several different barks, howls, and growls made among the conversation of a group of dogs.Although there are several differences between us and dogs, there also seems to be a great amount of similarities that can help us figure out more about domesticated animals. As you can see, emotions, aging, and communication are all prime examples. Scientists have a hard time telling why animals behave a certain way because we canno t just simply go up to a dog and ask them due to lack of communication.But, little by little we get closer to this information through assumption, common sense, and observation because even though we are not a hundred percent sure, the explanation is pretty clear. The dog is not as much of a complex animal as we thought. In fact, it seems to me that the dog is the one animal that we understand the most, but the one animal we have so much more to learn about. After all, a man’s best friend should be someone we truly know about.

About artist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

About artist - Essay Example Moreover, he has acquired masters from Pratt Institute of Brooklyn and from New York School of Visual Arts in New York City. He has also conducted many drawing exhibitions, music and video performances, press coverage and received honors and indulges in teaching profession. The actual artistic work of Michael Alan is painting, drawing and sculpting. According to (Alan) â€Å"Art is a combination of harmonious opposites, close observation, catharsis, a means of communication and a radical juxtaposition of dimensional elements†. The drawings of Michael Alan depict transformative energies of performers and spaces considerably. He utilized in his art work, materials which are assorted in nature including prints, casts, discovered objects and paints. The sculptures built by Michael have the quality of beauty and efficacy which can pull any art lover with ease. Michael Alan is an artist who gives importance to the mystical power of space and elements of nature. He portrays himself as an alien and one who holds connection with the out of the world experiences. He believes that his artistic works are different dimension of the energy of space and human beings surrounding him. According to him â€Å"The energy within spaces and human beings are like immeasurable driving force which gives shapes and sizes to my paintings, drawings and sculptures†. Michaels artistic perspective is that world is a space station where different energies with different magnitudes collide with each other to form creative forces. The artists always have major impact on the culture and values of a society or community. Michael Alan believes that he is a person who lives on hope. As per (Maliszewski ,2012) â€Å"I am hope, I am not Michael. I don’t care about anything else. You are hope â€Å". He spreads this positive message to his family, friends and community that if a person is hopeful then his life will be lively and vibrant. In general if we consider the

Frederick Wiseman and Michael Moore Research Paper

Frederick Wiseman and Michael Moore - Research Paper Example Michael Moore and Frederick Wiseman have been among the leading proponents of this genre, making their documentaries more commercially viable and theatrical-minded. Recent data from the British Film Institute indicates that documentaries released in the UK have increased in number every year in the past two decades. While only four documentaries were released in 2001, ninety documentaries were released in 2012. Since Michael Moore won the Cannes Palme d’or for Fahrenheit 9/11 in 2004, filmmakers arose to the fact that the documentary was commercially viable. This has been attributed to the dearth of realism that pushed a section of the audience towards authentic storytelling, whereas moving away from fictional plots and spectacular visuals. The ability for documentaries to fill the gaps left by investigative journalism, which is another reason for the interest in documentaries, has been embraced by Michael Moore and Frederick Wiseman in telling the story from their point of vi ew. ... This allowed the filmmaker to move away from voice-over narrations and embrace lived experience observation. This recording of the moment and its primacy changed documentary construction (Taylor 1). In his commitment as an observational filmmaker to represent real time, Wiseman presents scenes that show time as lived sans the straightforward nature of voice-overs. Wiseman turned to the Silent Ear’s continuity tradition, building a story that possesses a strong arch while also building scenes with resolution and continuity that push this story arc forward (Films 1). He uses the cutaway in High School to maintain progression of a logical dialogue between Michael and Dr. Allen when Michael refuses to accept the punishment handed to him. Using cutaway to Allen’s ring, Wiseman is able to condense a portion of this conversation. The condensing technique also happens between a couple of edits where Michael is seen standing before he is seen standing, almost inexplicably. While it is possible to see that Michael has changed his position by doing a camera analysis, the same cannot be deciphered from the conversation, as Wiseman is able to assure continuity. Wiseman links two separate moments for dramatic action and time, as well as to convey what he had understood from the different scenes (Films 1). Similarly, Wiseman uses the same technique in Domestic Violence in order to condense conversation and time. In this case, cutaway works to trim stories and shape them while also maintaining the meaning and impact that the filmmaker intended to convey (McGavin 1). He also uses this technique in order to surprise the audience. In Domestic Violence, particularly in the second half, he allows more time for story development with the camera focused in

The Conception of International Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Conception of International Justice - Essay Example It was revised and translated in both 1975 and 1999 but was originally published in 1971. In this theory, Rawls tries to find a solution on the issue of distributive justice by utilization of the social contract. This theory results in the formation of another theory known as Justice as Fairness, which deals with the difference principle and liberty principle (Freeman 2007, p. 10). Justice as Fairness is John Rawls’ political conception of justice. It encompasses two main principles of Equality and Liberty (Rawls 2001, p. 73). The principle of Equality is further divided into the Difference Principle and Fair Equality of Opportunity. He organized them in a prioritizing order as from the Liberty Principle to Fair Equality of Opportunity and finally to the Difference Principle. In case of a conflict in practice, the priorities determine the order of principles. He makes use of the social contract device, inquiring what principles of justice people agree to when making and design ing humanity. Justice as fairness presents a description of human nature further than the traditions of greedy egoist or saintly altruists and believing that human beings are both reasonable and rational (Thomas 2007, p. 54). Human beings become rational to achieve ends they want to meet, but they get reasonable when the ends become cooperatively possible by sticking to mutually suitable regulatory principles. In the Liberty Principle, Rawls claims that every human being has the same and equal right to essential liberties, and became confident that some freedoms and rights are basic than others. In this theory, he eloquently described the Liberty Principle as a broad, fundamental liberty compatible with others and later amended it in Political Liberalism. It involves the freedom of association, expression, conscience, and democratic rights as well as personal property right (Rawls 2001, p. 40). In this theory, Rawls presents economic and social inequalities in a manner that they app eared either of the greatest importance to the least advantaged, dependable with the immediately savings principle, or emotionally involved in positions and offices unlocked to everyone under the circumstance of reasonable equality of opportunity. He argued that this principle guarantee liberties that signify meaningful options to everyone in a society and confirm distributive justice. Fair Equality of Opportunity Principle maintains that positions and offices should be open to the entire citizens regardless of their ethnicity, social background or sex. Here, he argued that a person should get effective equal opportunity like any other of similar natural ability rather than having solitary right to opportunities. The Difference principle allows inequalities that work only to the advantage of the worse off. He brings out the argument about the system where the wealth gets accurately diffused up. Rawls asked himself several questions including the question about how the society would get stable by the use of the principles of justice. He later came up with lecture notes containing the solutions of the above question. The lecture notes were titled Political Liberalism. In Political Liberalism, Rawls pioneered the ideas of both the public reason and overlapping consensus. The scheme of public reason dealt with the regular reason of all citizens (Freeman 2007, p. 127). The overlapping consensus told mostly about how different citizens hold different philosophical and religious

How to solve the Cost Crisis in Health Care Essay

How to solve the Cost Crisis in Health Care - Essay Example As far as the issue of measuring the cost of healthcare is concerned, the position taken by Kaplan and Porter will be agreed with since knowledge of the cost makes it possible to determine whether a person is getting value for money from healthcare expenditure (Harris & Lenox, 2013). In its current form, the United States healthcare system can be said to be suffering from a cost crisis that consists of both a system that is wrongly measured and one that is overly burdened on service users. In the opinion of Moran (2013) however, the best way to tackle the issue of cost crisis is to approach it from a more systematic perspective where the real quantum of cost put into the system can be found. From this position, the argument of Kaplan and Porter on the need for healthcare cost to experience cost reduction interventions will be agreed with. But as the authors themselves noted, it will be more important to know the real value of cost involved in healthcare delivery. This is because any form of rush to drastically reducing cost in the system may only be a way the whole country may be digging its own whole towards the reception of a ill-funded and thus a poor healthcare system (Ginter, Duncan and Swayne,

History and Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

History and Political Science - Essay Example There has been opposing view points concerning the effects of the industrial revolution, whereby, both positive and negative outcomes have been associated with the events of the industrial revolution. Based on intensive analysis and discussions of the events surrounding the industrial revolution, it is with no doubt that it had massive positive effects on the socio-economic, cultural and political platforms. On the contrary, the industrial revolution also had negative effects on the socio-economic, political and cultural conditions. In this essay, the benefits and hardships resulting from the industrial revolution on the socio-economic, cultural and political platforms, will be expounded. Discussion The industrial revolution will live to be acknowledged for its positive impacts on the human society. This was a major turning point in human history, whereby, almost all aspects of daily life were influenced. The general human potential was positively influenced by the industrial revolut ion. This is evident through the increased average income as well as the population. Through the increase of the average global population and income, the human potential was magnified. ... The increased innovations realized through development in technology, impacted positively on all aspects of industrial production. This is evident through the innovations in iron making, steam power and textiles. A point worth of consideration is that human capital was magnified through these innovations, thus boosting production efficiency and returns from the industrial processes. Based on this phenomenon, wealth creation and income generation were positively impacted, hence demonstrating the benefits of the industrial revolution. The ease in transfer of knowledge during the industrial revolution, enhanced human efficiency across the globe, thus boosting industrial activities (Horn et al. 2010, p. 121). The industrial revolution led to increased efficiency in transportation and communication. This is a key factor which boosted human potential in business and industrialization. The use of highways, canals and turnpikes, had positive impacts on the transport sector, which in turn fac ilitated business activities and networks across the globe. The concept of job creation by the factories also impacted positively on human capital and the economic sector. Through job creation, human mobility, urbanization, and investment were facilitated, thus enhancing the social and economic landscape. From the social perspective, the high incomes enhanced better living standards which in turn led to high life expectancy. In particular, child mortality was decreased and high levels of human health recorded, hence enhancing human comfort and potential (More 2000, p. 168). From another perspective, the industrial revolution had negative impacts on human life, whereby,

Retail Park Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Retail Park - Assignment Example Major business brands would be attracted to a retail park thus giving consumers a much wider range to choose from. A retail park can also use brown field sites, if they are small. The use of a brown field sites would mean that acquiring of land, residences and other structures for building of the retail park would not have to be done. And also new land would not have to be acquired for the building of roads and railways as the ones already could be renovated and used. Since Medway does have problems associated with low wages, a retail park would create innumerable job opportunities for the people of Medway. Also, retail parks would provide opportunity for unskilled and low-skilled people to earn, thus addressing Medway's problem of lack of skills in certain areas. Having a retail park will lead to developments in social and economical infrastructure. This in turn will increase Medway Town Council's revenue. Thus the area surrounding the retail park will develop, and more people will come and settle in the area. First the demand for labor increases as shown by then rightward shift of the curve DI. Thus the wage rate increases from W to W1. Next the supply of labor increases in response to higher wages and a new supply curve marked S2 shifts on to the right. Ultimately the equilibrium wage rate is established at W2.However the serenity of the sub-urban country side of Medway could be lost due to the setting up of a retail park. Thus there is likely to be opposition from the environment conscious local communities. Preserving the country side should be of high priority. Due to the increase of traffic and the development of commercial infrastructure such as airports and offices there would be sound and air pollution. The Medway council would have to think of a way of disposing waste products from the retail park (Needham, 2006). These waste products could flow to the rivers and canals in the vicinity thus giving rise to water pollution. Certain species of birds and animals endemic to this area could be driven away as a result of acquiring land to set up the retail park. This could lead to protests from environmentalists. One of the major economic effects of the proposed retail park would be on the local shopping centers in Medway. The first major issue of an out-of-town retail development is the loss of business by the local shopkeepers. Acquiring land and the demolition of existing buildings would mean that the Medway council would have to pay compensation to the property owners and relocate them. The Medway council would have to bear this cost. Money will have to come from banks at high interest rates for this purpose. In order to have ample parking space, a large area of land would has to be rented. This will cost a considerable amount. Scenario A-2 Medway, which is located 30 miles East of London and 40 miles North West of Dover, is one of the largest

Pollution affects the health of all living thing. Essay Example for Free

Pollution affects the health of all living thing. Essay Many peoples, animals and plants depend on water for survival of life but because of water pollution all living things must suffer or die from the effects caused by water pollution. Man is busy inventing new things every day and the consequences of these inventions affect the land, air and stream and causes water pollution. Some of the causes of water pollution are industries trying to fulfill the need of consumers by inventing new products and creating jobs for people. Another cause of water pollution is the chemicals that people use on their lawns and gardens. Water pollution can also be caused by land movement, avalanche and erosion from the weather. Animal also causes water pollution but they are unaware that they are actually causing pollution to the stream, rivers and lakes. The effects of water pollution in our stream, lakes and ocean have a huge impact on the living creatures that uses the water for their habitat. When the beaches and lake are polluted, tourists do not spend time to visit there, animals also die from consuming garbage. Another effect of water pollution is the cause of an oil spill in the ocean which has a huge impact on the living creatures and wild life that uses the polluted water. It is important for individual living in this planet to prevent water pollution. The planet is very precious for all it living thing. People have to use the planet resources carefully, and prevent water pollution to it streams, lakes and rivers. We all share this plant it earth, air, land and water. When one of these characters of the p lanet is affected it also affects another. One can use water People can purchase items that they need and not want. They can reuse and recycle items that are useable. One can use organic material in their gardens and lawns. Farmers can reduce the use of chemical in their crops. One can walk, bike or use transit to get around. Individual should not put sediments, nutrients, toxic chemicals, pathogens in water. These are some of the thing people can do to prevent water pollution.

Effect of Globalisation on Media and Diversity

Effect of Globalisation on Media and Diversity Cahanoo Krishna Globalization encourages the production of culturally diverse media. Discuss. Executive Summary This essay is aimed to seek and to find out whether globalization of the media tends to undermine culturally diversity or does it encourages or benefits it. Existing and present point of view around the relationship/connection between media globalization and diverse cultures are to be examined, considered and evaluated. A study of the diverse purposes performed by global media and surrounded by the perspective of different economies, technological and cultural aspects ( from a cultural perspective ), was done in order to observe to what extent and changes of diverse ways globalization along with media could impact on different cultures. Generally media could influence an essential and active role in upsetting a country’s culture. Whether the globalization of media weakens a country’s national culture or not, it is also to determine by how potential and active a specific country’s national culture is. Amongst the positive side, economic and technological globalization of media do not only refreshes the already existing media strong points, but they also allocate contribution to newer media groups to develop and to mature. At some specific point this essay uses the case of Mauritius and the international facts to demonstrate the cultural homogenization with global media. The national and regional media groups in Mauritius, such as channels from the Mauritius Broadcast Corporation (MBC) like â€Å"Bhojpuri Channel and Sen Creole† develop quickly. Also all the radio stations helps to contribute towards a culture preservance. Thanks to cultural factors, the MBC and Local Radio stations have an edge over foreign competitors and play a very important role in the preservation of our Mauritian cultural identity. (Gov.mu, 2014) Globalization Media in cultural diversity Globalization can be defined as a concrete happening which is caused concurrently by the means of new technologies. It refers to a fast rising and the progress of complex interconnections amongst societies, cultures, organizations globally. The objective of this essay is to consider and to evaluate whether the new circumstances shaped by globalization in the media business imply a risk for the cultural diversity. Most agree that the trend towards becoming international or as one appears to be irreversible, and it is a progression that is inevitable to affect all of us in one way or another. (Sohail, 2014) Globalisation could never occur or exist without the help of media and communication. The media itself performs as a contributor which integrates and connect different cultures nations present around the globe. According to Marshall McLuhan, he describes globalisation as an inter-relations amongst different nations whose purpose is to highlight the ‘electronic media and technology which increasingly integrates the world’, and so those happenings in a certain country can be experienced here and now by other individuals which would make the world more integrated. (McLullan, n.d.) Therefore persons from around the globe are imposed by the cultural colonisation which occur in regards to the actual media and which greatly influences the community and individuals. The combination of diverse cultures from different countries therefore can be integrated, mixed and characterised into different notable forms of media illustration which can practice the media globalisation and mul ticulturalism. (Media Globalisation, n.d.) Through the distribution of the Internet, this has provided the media with additional channel to interrelate itself with the world and is considered to be the most valuable, all-inclusive channels of communication used through the globe. The media globalisation has prominently prolonged the implication of communication throughout numerous media channels such as social networking sites like ‘Twitter, Facebook, blogs and YouTube’ which have developed into a leading platform, populaces from around the world and numerous diverse cultures use these communication networks even though it was at first initiated from the Western community, but still creates positive effects on the less developed countries. (UK Essays, 2014) The media uprising has transformed the whole sphere into a world-wide village. Considering the Satellites TV networks are one of the great tools which contributed to media and the public acknowledge it with love. In Mauritius Satellite TV like ‘Canal Sat, MBC TNT, Orange MYT and DSTV’ are in an increasing reputation and popularity day by day and have taken over traditional forms of entertainment. According to Giandev Moteea, numerous channels form the ‘MCB TNT and Orange MYT’ are bringing up-to-date technical and scientific information at no cost which almost all houses do have them according to statistics. On a simply touch of turning on our television, we can be conscious of the most recent changes around the world instantly. We can watch programmes like the upcoming ‘2014 World Cup, scientific robots at Mars and marvels of engineering in the field of medicine and technology’. This latest verge of technology have delivered us the opportunities to move from a standing stage of lack of knowledge to a modern era of uprising and judgement. Right now we are living in a speedily and constantly changing world, change is around and within us. (Moteea, 2014) The Impact of new technologies According to Teresa M, traditional media as we know will most unlikely continue to have the utmost dominance in the spreading and distribution of cultural ethics. The digitalisation of the media unlocks further angles for the supply of contents which will show a surge in the cultural mixture along the media. However, there is a tendency towards the implantation of pay media which could mean that access to the contents is restricted for a great part of the society, who do not have sufficient resources. This tendency must be counteracted especially by the public ownership media. The convergence and digitalisation of media compromise of new potentials for the increase of cultural diversity, such as the public straight access to subjects, further opportunity for the distribution of subjects and contents. Internet is an exclusively suitable intermediate for the spreading and communication of cultural contents. The Internet can ease the existence in society of cultural associations and oth er groups of similar nature, which will help to develop stimulating cultural accomplishments. (Teresa, 2001) According to So hail Butt, the whole planet has changed and turned into a global community due to the media. The extensive power of media have spread in almost every society and cultural aspects all over the globe. Currently with the development within the field of science and technology, we are internationally interconnected with communication from other countries. The internet has surely brought countries and nations closer, it has functioned to help in the development of the world into global village. (Sohail, 2014) Conclusion The global media mainly the term globalisation concept, permits the different cultures to present a distinct expression to promote and to encourage their awareness and also to provide the general community with proper understanding and awareness of their stories and characteristics. It also permits for the communication of their applicable explanations and observations on diverse issues that are at utmost importance through the preserving of culture and understanding acquirement of the diverse cultural ways, thus this allow them to hold and keep their mixture rather than extinguishing some of the cultures, as others have predicted. (Etec.ctlt.ubc.ca, 2012) The mass media though globalisation contributes in the uplifting and re-establishing of the different cultural preservation of countries. We see that somehow with the help of technology, it can be used to promote and preserve cultural language, customs and the culture itself. Technology like the internet and social networks also al lows for self-representation and conservation of subjective and combined distinctiveness by providing independence and authorisation. Globalisation and the media along with technology have been providing opportunities to redefine shared and combined distinctiveness along with categorising a place for any distinctive cultures present. Globalisation along with the media is here to help the community, governmental and economic systems, combined with a common goal in mind, will no doubt in the present and the future help and enable the evolving authorisation among diverse cultural aspects and peoples throughout the world. Through globalisation and the media, this provide a beneficial impact on person’s, societies or groups advancing to promote and help in the cultural aspects in an international or locally. Globalisation have also complexes the method of education in numerous times over but while doing so, it has help to generate numerous farfetched occasions and opportunities for states and countries to break free with the old-fashioned and traditional ways of cultivating and now work in the direction of producing awareness and understanding in different communities across the globe. Thanks to the media, any individual is perceived as a person who can perform locally but yet reason internationally. To my poin t of view media is encouraged to preserve and maintain the cultural mixture through the assistance of globalisation. (Etec.ctlt.ubc.ca, 2012) References Etec.ctlt.ubc.ca,. (2012). Globalization and its Effect on Cultural Diversity ETEC 510. Retrieved 3 June 2014, from http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Globalization_and_its_Effect_on_Cultural_Diversity Gov.mu,. (2014). Republic of Mauritius. Retrieved 2 June 2014, from http://www.gov.mu/English/Pages/default.aspx Mc Lullan, M. (n.d.). Marshall McLuhan, The Global Village. Livinginternet.com. Retrieved 1 June 2014, from http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_mcluhan.htm Media Globalisation. (n.d.). Retrieved 3 June 2014, from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/9446_010773Ch2.pdf Moteea, G. (2014). Giandev Moteea : â€Å"Television goes digital, Mauritius Post cooperates with ICTA and IBA to carry a study on the state of DTT†. Defimedia.info. Retrieved 3 June 2014, from http://www.defimedia.info/news-sunday/interview/item/26827-giandev-moteea%E2%80%9Ctelevision-goes-digital-mauritius-post-cooperates-with-icta-and-iba-to-carry-a-study-on-the-state-of-dtt%E2%80%9D.html Sohail, M. (2014). Globalization, its impact on mass media. The Nation. Retrieved 2 June 2014, from http://www.nation.com.pk/national/24-Feb-2014/globalization-its-impact-on-mass-media Teresa, M. (2001). GLOBALISATION OF THE MEDIA INDUSTRY AND POSSIBLE THREATS TO CULTURAL DIVERSITY. Retrieved 1 June 2014, from UK Essays,. (2014). Is Media Globalisation A Form Of Cultural Imperialism Media Essay. Ukessays.com. Retrieved 2 June 2014, from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/media/is-media-globalisation-a-form-of-cultural-imperialism-media-essay.php

Operant and Classical Conditioning in Advertising

Operant and Classical Conditioning in Advertising Buyer behaviour and marketing communications Classical Conditioning Theory Operant learning theory can be compared to classical conditioning learning theory, as both are methods through which behaviour can be modified. The key difference is that operant learning is based on modifying the consequences of behaviour, whilst classical conditioning is based on the use of stimuli to modify behaviour. This can most clearly be seen by reference to Pavlov’s (1927) and Skinner’s (1957) experiments. Pavlov’s (1927) experiments involved training dogs to associate the sound of a bell with being fed. As such, the dogs learnt to salivate when they heard a bell, in anticipation of food, in spite of not controlling when the food was delivered. This demonstrates classical conditioning learning. In contrast, Skinner’s (1957) experiments involved placing rats in separate boxes each of which contained a bar. When the rat pressed the bar, a consequence would occur. Some rats were fed when they pressed their bar, whilst others suffered an electric shoc k. Other rats were given an electric shock until they pressed the bar, when the shock went away. Over time, the rats learnt to moderate their behaviour, either to obtain the benefits or to avoid the harmful effects. This is an example of operant learning (Domjan, 2003). As a result of the interactive nature of operant learning, advertising has traditionally been based on classical conditioning, with campaigns generally intended to drive dynamic learning within consumers, thus moderating their behaviour to associate a product with a certain type of reward. Ackerberg (2003) claims that this reward can be either some form of tangible benefits; or it can be based on â€Å"image†, â€Å"brand† or â€Å"prestige† benefits. However, Ackerberg’s (2003) research indicated that traditional advertising does not always tend to affect consumer behaviour, instead simply acting to inform consumers and enable them to choose products which fit their self image. This is reinforced by Osselaer and Alba (2000) who argue that using the advertising process to attempt to enhance brand equity can often result in a decrease in customer perception of the attributes used to judge product quality. This is particularly the case when a company already has an existing reputation based on product quality, indicating that consumers are more likely to trust the operant conditioning they have developed from using products, rather than the perception of said products. However, the recent rise of interactive media such as e-mail and the internet offer companies the chance to include more operant conditioning principles in the advertising and promotional campaigns, by allowing customers to interact with products through virtual multimedia environments. This effectively allows companies to achieve a balance between indirect advertising and direct, but expensive and narrowly focused, product trials, whilst maintaining a wide reach. Indeed, research by Daugherty et al (2008) has shown that when comparing the direct, indirect, and virtual marketing methods, the virtual methodology can have the greatest impact on brand attitudes, particularly when it is followed up by exposure to advertising or a direct trial. This indicates that virtual advertising allows companies to obtain the best of both worlds, aiding in the indirect, classical conditioning, approach and the direct, operant learning, approach (Daugherty et al, 2008). As such, the evidence tends to suggest that both operant and classical learning can be used in the creation of advertising campaigns. However, evidence from Pawlowski et al (1998) shows that existing conditioning and learning will also play an important role in perceptions of advertising, and the ability of campaigns to affect consumer behaviour. This was demonstrated by Pawlowski et al’s experiments with children in the American second, fourth, and sixth grades, who were shown four advertisements. The older children were better able to interpret the metaphors from the advertisements, as well as the brand names and specific advertising copy. However, in spite of the increased levels of understanding with age, there was little evidence that the advertising messages improved the perceptions of the advertised products. This not only indicates that people’s experience and development will affect their interpretation of advertising, but also that it is important to ensure that advertising is correctly pitched in order to reinforce or ‘punish’ existing perceptions to boost the operant condition ing effect. Some evidences as to how this can be achieved can be found in the work of Ottemann and Lethans (1975), who argued that operant learning theory and behavioural modification principles could be used to affect the organisational behaviour of major organisations. Their work was based on the use of organisational behaviour modification programs, and their effects on the performance of first line supervisors who had been trained to manage their behaviour on a contingent basis. The results of said study revealed that supervisors who had been trained to moderate their behaviour, according to the operant conditions, achieved consistently superior performance levels when compared to their peers who had experienced no such training (Ottemann and Luthans, 1975). This could be argued to indicate that operant learning theory is always of use in moderating behaviour, and that this usefulness tends to be increased as the relevance of the stimulus in increased. Within advertising, Till and Priluck (2000) refer to the relevance of a stimulus, and also to stimulus generalisation, which refers to â€Å"the extent to which a response conditioned to one stimulus transfers to similar stimuli†. Indeed, in the context of using conditioning and learning for advertising campaigns, stimulus generalisation is vital for factors such as brand extension and brand imitation. This argument is supported by two studies carried out by Till and Priluck (2000), which show that once an advertising or promotion campaign has conditioned customer attitudes towards a particular brand, they can then transfer said attitudes to a product in a similar category, or with a similar name. However, the results of the studies also suggested that this may only be a temporary effect, and that customers will ultimately also need to be conditioned to the new product or category (Till and Priluck, 2000). In addition, Kim et al (1998) argue that existing attitudes and the nat ure of an operant learning approach can affect the extent to which these attitudes can be transferred, as well as the formation of new attitudes and product beliefs. This continues to indicate that both operant learning and classical conditioning will run into problems if they attempt to run against existing environmental conditioning which exists in consumers. However, Grossman and Till (1998) carried out two experiments which tended to indicate that classical conditioning learning can be used to overcome existing environmental conditioning through advertising, although this was found to be a long term effect. This finding is based on the use of classical conditioning procedures which matched favourable images and representations to a brand of mouthwash. The first experiment was based on simple exposure, the impact of which was then measured immediately after the experiment; and again after one week and three weeks had elapsed. The second study used the same methods and procedures, but in a more controlled environment and over a longer period of time. This showed that not only do classical conditioning adverts tend to be enduring in the minds of consumers, but also that they can gradually alter existing perceptions over time (Grossman and Till, 1998). Similar results were shown by Herr and Fazio (1991), however their research also examined the use of both attributional and cognitive, verbal learning techniques in order to maximise the conditioning affects. Such repeated and varied positioning of the brand as being favourably evaluated was shown to be more effective than simply using a single technique (Herr and Fazio, 1991). Another area in which both classical and operant learning and conditioning can be used in advertising is in the use of celebrities as conditioned stimuli to help with the associative learning process. Recent work by Till et al (2008) has established that the use of celebrities in advertising can actually have an active, operant conditioning, effect on conditioning, in spite of advertising being more of a classical conditioning medium. In addition to this, the operant learning effects will tend to be more effective when there is a fit between celebrity and product, and will also tend to be more enduring than peer products with no celebrity endorsement (Till et al, 2008). Similar observations have been made for the use of event or sports team sponsorship, although this has been shown to have more of a classical conditioning than an operant learning effect (Speed and Thompson, 2000). Again, the effectiveness of this approach is driven by the fit between the sponsor and event or team; as well as perceptions of the sponsor and their motivations for the sponsorship (Speed and Thompson, 2000). However, in spite of the now widespread use of classical conditioning as a method for interpreting the effects of advertising, and the less wide spread use of operant learning, there are still critics of these approaches. In particular, Allen and Madden (1985) argue that there is a need for a more precise ‘affective-conditioning hypothesis’ to be created in order to better describe the effects of advertising, and in the absence of unequivocal evidence to support classical conditioning effects. In addition, Stuart et al (1987) conducted experiments to determine exactly what classical conditioning effects could be observed within the context of advertising and consumer behaviour. These experiments demonstrated that whilst classical attitude conditioning could be observed at all four levels of stimulus pairing, environmental conditioning and latent inhibition acted to strongly retard these conditioning effects. This implies that the affect of classical conditioning approach es in advertising cannot be accurately predicted, due to the wide range of environmental and latent inhibitions which will be inherent in the majority of consumers who have already been exposed to advertising for any great length of time (Stuart et al, 1987). One example of an advertising campaign which has used classical conditioning and operant learning is the move by the supermarket chain Sainsbury’s to use celebrity chef Jamie Oliver to front a major advertising campaign, and effectively be â€Å"the TV face of Sainsburys† (Wheeler, 2003). This advertising campaign can be seen to have a strong classical conditioning effect, as it helps customers to associate the products and branding that they see in Sainsbury’s stores with a well recognised culinary expert. In addition, the use of a relevant celebrity will provide operant learning, something which has been supported by the inclusion of promotional materials such as Jamie Oliver recipe cards, which have been made available to customers. Wheeler (2003) provides evidence of the success of the operant conditioning impact of this campaign: after Oliver demonstrated how to use Sainsburys truffle butter to cook an appetising Christmas turkey, Sainsbury’s reported selling more than 50,000 jars of the product. This shows that Oliver’s recommendations, shown on TV, on recipe cards and in store, conditioned customers to associate the butter with cooking a high quality meal, thus increasing sales. However, there is also evidence that Sainsbury’s has suffered somewhat from existing environmental conditioning towards Oliver, with Walker (2005) reporting that Oliver is someone that â€Å"people either love or hate†. As such, some people will already have negative conditioning around Oliver, and this conditioning will act to inhibit any conditioning around Sainsbury’s brand and products. In addition, Oliver’s actions, such as refusing to use Sainsbury’s farmed salmon in his restaurants despite endorsing it for the company, will also impair conditioning; as people will perceive a conflict between the two stimuli (Walker, 2005). On addition, Oliver’s personal views can also condition customers against the Sainsbury’s brand, as reported by the Telegraph (2008) when Oliver â€Å"attacked Sainsburys for failing to turn up to a debate on factory farming†. Whilst the company allowed a senior director to be interviewed as part of the program, and none of the other major supermarkets sent representatives to the debate, the conditioned association between Oliver and Sainsbury’s means that the consequences of non attendance will likely be higher for Sainsbury’s, and may further impair conditioning. In addition, Sainsbury’s should look to boost its use of Oliver in more operant conditioning settings, in order to overcome these issues. For example, the supermarket could make use of the interactive nature of the internet to set up a ‘cook with Jamie’ part of the site, where customers could download recipes and watch how they are cooked. This would help them make associations between buying Sainsbury’s products and cooking appetising meals, as well as making it easier for them to cook meals once they have bought the ingredients. The campaign could also be boosted by the use of more in store activities associated with Oliver, such as holding in store tastings of products he has endorsed, or demonstrating their use in store. For example, in the week before Xmas, by holding a demonstration of how to use the truffle butter mentioned above to cook a turkey, Sainsbury’s could have benefitted from operant conditioning and learning, and further boosted its sales of the product. In conclusion, in spite of the difficulties associated with using both operant conditioning and classical conditioning in advertising and promotions, it is clear that both techniques still have significant potential applications to real life advertising campaigns. In particular, the use of the internet and association with well known celebrities allows retailers, and other businesses, to benefits from the combined effects of classical conditioning and operant learning, to further boost associations. By doing so, and ensuring that the associations are relevant and pertinent to the customers, retailers can achieve both short term success, as seen in the truffle butter example above, and long term success, as described by Grossman and Till (1998), by making long term adjustments to the environmental conditioning of their customers. References Ackerberg, D. A. (2003) Advertising, learning, and consumer choice in experience good markets: an empirical examination. 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